in bits and pieces
A recently discovered “Hero Stone” in Arin, Bandipore. Images generously shared by Yaseen Tuman. Hero stones used to be put up at the spot where a great warrior died. For a detailed study of these stones found all over the valley, do check: Sati Stones of Kashmir
In 1947, just when geographic borders of Kashmir were getting re-defined, a bunch of artists started on a journey that was to alter the borders of Indian art. Six young artists founded the Progressive Artists Group in Bombay. These were FN Souza, SH Raza, KH Ara, MF Husain, SK Bakre and HA Gade. Around same time three men in Kashmir were also going Progressive mentored by the artists from Bombay group. These were S.N. Butt, Triloke Kaul and P.N. Kachru. When SH Raza reached out to these artists in Kashmir in August 1948, the result was formation of ‘Progressive Artists Association’ in Srinagar in October. It’s first exhibition was held in May 1949 and by October that year the exhibition traveled out to Delhi. The two progressive groups continued to inspire each other for many years to come. Raza famously went on to explore the Tantric symbolism in his paintings inspired by Kashmir. In 1950s, Raza went on to mentor one of the best known progressive artists from Kashmir, G.R. Santosh who too worked on Tantric symbolism.
[can see the work of Bombay group here]
The post from 2011, giving the work of Kashmir Artist group from late 1940s:
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Earlier this year I got married. I married someone related to Triloke Kaul. Kashmiri marriage formalities require that the new couple eat-out with relatives of each other. A meeting with Triloke Kaul is what I looked most forward to. I wanted the complete story of the art movement in Kashmir.
And I had something special for him: images from March 1955 issue of Marg: A Magazine of the Arts (Heritage of Kashmir Special Issue) edited by Mulk Raj Anand. The issue carried some of his early works along with that of his colleagues.
In his room the TV was on Tetris mode. I think he plays. He doesn’t follow news much. Classical India Music plays, he records it and neatly arranges them by the Ragas.
We talked about the magazine, turns out he helped Mulk Raj Anand edit the particular issue, he even ghost wrote the introduction to the issue He identified the sketches done by him in the issue…most of the sketches of Kashmiri ornaments.
In the magazine, he saw one of his early work: Ajanta. It was done during his Baroda days. He doesn’t have it with him. I have promised to send a scan to him. He also asked for a work of S.N. Butt.
And about that iconic self-portrait. I was happy to see that he had a sense of humor. He indulged me when I suggested that he offer me a pose with the cigarette. He even suggested the proper angle. He told me that back in 1950s when that portrait was exhibited in Jehangir Art Gallery, a photographer did capture him against the painting holding onto a cigarette between the lips.
No, he doesn’t have most of his old work with him. In 1990, he lost most of his early work to conflict when he was forced to shift to Jammu like other Kashmiri Pandits.
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| Left: the deity from his ancestral village talked art. |
He talked art and history. How he mentored Santosh and how young Raza greatly influenced all of them. The names of the Kashmiri artists of earlier generation and the politics of the later years.
Here’s the audio of the conversation (primarily in Kashmiri):
History of Progressive Art in Kashmir with Triloke Kaul
video link
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The stone inscriptions were in Sharda and of much interest because the date on them put them in 18th century, around 1789 when Afghans were governing Kashmir (Timur Shah (1772-1793 A.D.), a period which is now remembered as a period of much persecution. It is interesting that even around that time Sharda survived and Pandits were working on their holy places.
Bhushan Kumar Kaul Deambi in his work ‘Sarada and Takari Alphabets: Origin and Development’ (2008) mentions the inscription but reports that this important inscription is now untraceable.
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Finished uploading the paper, you can read it here at archive.org
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| King with his queens and attendants Awantiswamin temple |
A chronological Chart of the History of Kashmir based on Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (1148-1149 A.D.) and other original sources.
Based on a basic list compilation originally done by T.N. Khazanchi for Marg Magazine in 1950s as Superintendent, Archeology and Museum Dept. Srinagar.
[I have appended additional interesting bits, updated with recent researches in the field and my notes on the various eras. Point to note Patañjali’s Mahābhāsya c.150 B.C is the first mention of Kashmir in an Indian source. Mahabarata mentions Kāśmīramandalam, a pilgrimage holy site for sages. Some Nepalese recension of Mahabharata mention Haramukuta (Haramukh) pilgrimage. ]
Kalhana’s account opens with Gonanda I (accession assumed Kali Samvat 653, Lankika S. 626) and first book ends with Yudhisthira. The aggregated length of reign for 75 kings has been shown at 2268 years. The account is of course not absolutely reliable from a historical point of view. But Kalhana was working on genuine tradition, text sources (now lost, like work of Padmamihira, who in turn used another lost work of this kind, the Pārthivāvalī of the Mahāvratin Saiva ascetic Helārāja) and some of the kings have a definite historical existence. Book II of Kalhana opens with Pratapaditya I and ends with Sardhimati-Aryaraja. The aggregate length of reigns for this period is 192 years. The third book opens with Meghavahana and ends with Baladitya. The aggregate length of the reigns for this period is 589 years with 300 years ascribed to Ranaditya alone.
Moulvi Ghulam Hasan Shah (1832-1898) in his three volume ‘Tarikh-i- Hasan’ is only source for the ‘lost’ kings of Kashmir and based on an old Rajatarangini written by one Pandit Ratnakar, called Ratanakar Purana and was found by one Praja Pandit.
The Lost Kings:
Kalhana mentions the king as Kubera’s friend and that Guhyakas obeyed him. Possible reference to the riches he earned
48. Asoka [1st century BCE/CE]
During Asoka’s time Viharas and Stupas at Suskaletra and Vitastatra came up. Foundation of Srinagari, the old capital known as Pandrethan was setup. Resuscitation of Saiva Shrine at Vijayeshvara. Asokesvara temples at Vijayeshvara. [The source of Ashoka/Jalauka story for Kalhana is the lost history of Chavillākara]
49. Jalanka [Jalauka]
Supposed son of Asoka and an unnamed woman atop Shankracharya hill as a boon from Bhūteśvara. According to Cunningham the temple of Shankracharya was built by Jalanka but not supported by architectural evidence.
Built the Agrahara at the hamlet of Varabala (Baravul).
His queen Isanadevi, installed circles of mothers [mātṛcakra] in the regions that formed the gateways of the kingdom of Kashmir. Royal preceptor was Avadhūta, a tantric master. The king expelled foreigners from Kashmir, settled people of four castes in the valley. Conquered Kanyakubja and other regions of north India.
The present airport is located on Damodar Udar.
51. Huska [mentioned in Kharoshthi inscriptions] 52. Juska. Sten Konow in 1929 based on Kharoshthi inscriptions held him same as Vasishka. According to Konow: Vasishka and Huvishka are mentioned as successors of Kanishka. To explain this, he backs up with theory of Hemchandra Raychaudhuri about two Kanishka [I, the famous one], is followed by Vasishka, his brother Huvishka, and Kanishka II, son of Vasishka, is the ruler of Kashmir mentioned by Kalhana. Which might explain why the “famous” inscriptions that Kashmiri scholars have been looking for in Kashmir may not exit in Kashmir. As the events described by Kalhana are actually of Kanishka I. According to Tibetan sources the council took place in Jalandhara.
| Vima Kadphises | 113-127 CE |
| Kanishka I | 127-151 CE |
| Huvishka | 151-190 CE |
| Vasudeva I | 190-230 CE |
| Kanishka II | 230-247 CE |
Taxila silver vase inscription mentions Jihonika [], the satrap of Chachh, son of ‘Manigula’. His coins however mostly found in Kashmir and Hazara.
Anti Buddhist trend in Kashmir. The traditional cult as represented in Nilamata-purana restored. However, Buddha mentioned as an avatar of Vishnu in Nilamata and celebrated. People practice Naga+brahminical+Buddhist practices.
Patanjali’s Mahabhasya introduced in Kashmir by Chanda. Circa 100 B.C.
55. Gonanda III
56. Vibhisana I
57. Indrajit
58. Ravana
59. Vibhisana II
Restoration of Naga cult and land recovery.
60. Nara [AD. 89-99]
Also known as “Kimnara”. Founded Narapura (on bank of Vitasta). Buddhism in decline.
Kalhana also tells the story of Brahmin Vishakha saving Naga’s from famine by tricking a māntrika (watchman) who keep watch over the crops. Hail/Rains is supposed to be form of Nagas. In Buddhist origin tales of Kashmir, Naga king Araval tries to defeat monk Madhyantika using hail, storm and thunder.
61. Siddha
Son of Nara. In the end, flew to heaven.
62. Utplaksa
63. Hiranyaksa
64. Hiranyakula
Founded Hiranyapura (modern Ranyil)
65. Vasukula
66. Mihirakula
It is assumed Kalhana shows him to be 1200 years earlier than his real date. His father Tormana shows up later in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. It is now understood that there were two Tormana. In list of Alchon Huns
Story of Mihirkula, at least one version of it, is similar to the story of Rincana. Mihirkula wanted to be buddhist (his father was Jain according to some Jain text )…but was offended by the monks. He turned anti- buddhist. Just like story of Rincana, the source of the tale is the party which apparently refused conversion. There is at least 1 Buddhist text that claims Mihirkula converted to buddhism…impressed by self-sacrifice of lowly monk who was send to convert him. In Chinese travelogue we read that brahmins of Kashmir were not happy with activities of Mihirkula as they themselves were into sutras and respected Buddhism. Kalhana’s testimony is towards that. He say’s during that era Kashmir was overrun by Mlecchas [refers to speaker of foreign tongues]. We see Kalhana look down upon the Brahmins from Gandhara that the king introduced in Kashmir [around Bijbehara].
Son of Mihirakula
First proper mention in Rajatarangini of Yoginis and tantric practice:
Baka attracted by a yoginī called Bhaṭṭā, becomes a sacrificial victim offered to a circle of goddesses (devīcakra). The yoginī acquires supernatural powers and flies up into the sky. At the end of the story, it is mentioned that the footprints of the yoginī, a god named Śatakapāleśa [the Lord of a Hundred Skulls] and the circle of mothers provide a recollection of this event in the monastery (maṭha) of Kherī, south of the Viśokå River (Veśau).
68. Ksitinanda
69. Vasunandra
Wrote a handbook on Erotics
70. Nara II
71. Aksa
Son of Vasunanda
Aksavala (modern Acchabal) founded by Aksa
72. Gopaditya
Son of Aksa
Temple of Jyesthesvara on Gopadri said to be built by him.
73. Gokarna
75. Pratapaditya I
The first king of Book II of Rajatarangini. Unconnected with Gonanda dynasty. Supposed to have been a relative of King Vikramaditya. Perhaps Harsa Vikramaditya of Ujjain is indicated. Kashmir experiences first instance of a prosperity in its early history.
76. Jalankas
Possible that Kalhana (or his source) in fact was talking about a Hephthalite king [White Huns of Central Asia, now understood to be actually Alchon Hun and not Hephthalite]. In Sanskrit the word means “leech”. It is possible the whole story was a way to establish Alchon king’s claim over the land by linking himself to Ashoka.
77. His son Tunjina I
A great famine came.
78. Vijaya
Belonged to a different family.
Founded town of Vijayesvara (modern Bijibehara)
Earliest sculpture Brahminical sculptures done in Gandhara + Sasanian style found at Bijibehara belong to 4th-5th century.
79. Jayandra
80. Sardhimati Aryaraja [Sandhimat]
Aryaraja was the minster of Jayendra and was cruelly put to death but miraculously restored to life by Yoginis. In a burial ground Yoginis put his bones together in front of his Guru and revive him from dead. Sandhimat enjoys himself with the intoxicated Yoginis as a ‘leader of their circle’ (cakranāyaka), rituals as told in tantric texts. He is elected King.
Sandhimati Aryaraja seems to have figured in Kashmir tradition as the beau-ideal, a royal devotee. Abdicated and lived as a recuse at Siva-Bhutesa.
81. Megavahana
[Around 5th century A.D.]
Book II Closes with Aryaraja’s abdication. Restoration of Gonand’s family with Megavahana. Patron of Buddhism. Said to have come from Gandhara.
[ His wife Amrtaprabha. Daughter of King Pragyotisa of Bhutan. Sent to Kashmir with her Guru Stonpa. Built Amrtabhva Vihar. Mentioned in writings of Ou-kong, Chinese pilgrim who visited Kashmir during the years 759-763 A.D]
Kalhana tells a tale with Buddhist elements of compassion, a tale told about some other legendary kings too:
King Meghavāhana sees a barbarian (śabara/kirāta) about to
kill a man in front of a Caṇḍikā/Cāmuṇḍā temple. The barbarian
wants to offer the victim to save his son from dying. The king
volunteers to become the victim and is about to cut his own head off,
when Varuṇa appears and saves him. The king had to go through this
ordeal because of his cruel ancestor, Mihirakula, although he was
compassionate himself.
Stories from Kalhana in this period hint at end of human sacrifice by Meghavāhana.
82. Sreshthasena (also known as Pravarasena I and Tunjina II)
Sacred structures at Puranadhisthana (Modern Pandrethan) came up. Siva temple of Pravaresvara which existed during Kalhana’s time.
83. Hiranya, 84. Tormana (II) [c.530–570]
85. Matrgupta
The story of Kalhana represents Matrgupta as a poor poet who has sought the court og king Harsa, Vikramaditya of Ujjayni. This king sends him a letter directing the minister of Kashmir to install him on the throne. Abdicates subsequently in favor of Pravarasena II [Alchon king]. Founded the temple of Matrguptasvamin. During his time flourished Mentha the writer of Hayagrivadha.
86. Pravarasena II
[c.530–590, Late 6th century]
Authentic historical data exists for Pravarsena. Represented as son of Tormana who was on a pilgrimage when Matrgupta was crowned. Supposed to have conquered Gujrat. Contemporary of Siladitya who was on the throne of Malava in 580 A.D. as narrated by Hiuen Tsiang. This is confirmed by the foundation of Pravarpura also recorded by Hiuen Tsiang. Rare specimen of his coins exist both in gold and silver.
He founded the Pravarsenapura or Pravarpura (Modern Srinagar) around Hari Parbat. He plans as Shiva temple Pravareśvarain at Pravarapura, but miraculously a Vishnu image appears at the place, he names it Jayasvāmin after the architect of the temple.
A Magical Katha told:
After death of his father Pravarsena meets a holy man, a pāśupata order siddha named Aśvapāda on the mountain of Śrīparvata. Pravarpura is promised kingship by Shiva. The story has elements of the puranic legend of Upamanyu. Pravarsena becomes king.
When the King was looking for a site to build his city, one night he arrived at a river and on the other side of the river he could see the ghat where the dead used to be set afire. While the king stood watching burning pyres, he heard a laughter and a Rakshasa appeared with his arms raised, hands-up. The king was afraid but the Rakshasa asked the King to look beyond his appearance and manners. He was here to offer him his service, provided the King crossed over to his side like the king Vikramaditya. Saying so, the Rakshasa extended his arm in friendship, the hand became a bridge. The King took out a blade, a Kshurika and cut steps into the bridge so that he could cross over. On reaching the other side, the Rakshasa threw a measuring tape in the air, away from the spot, and told the King to build his city where he finds this measuring tape in the morning. And then the Rakshasa disappeared. Next morning King found the thread at village Sharitaka, the seat of Goddess Sharika looked over by Yaksha Atta, the Lord of Watchtower.
87. Yudhisthira II
Founded Skandabhavanavihara (modern Khandabhavana)
88. Lakhana, 89. Narendraditya
Perhaps may be connected to Udayaditya who represents himself as ‘Raja Lakhana Udayaditya’ on his coins – which is a coin of the Epthalite type.
90. Ranaditya [Around 6th century]
Son of Yudhisthira II and Younger brother of Lahkhana. Supposed to have ruled for 300 years. Part of many magical tales. Example:
Ranaditya in previous birth fell in love with goddess Bhramaravāsinī who lived on the Vindhya mountain. Goddess is reborn as Raṇārambhā and marries Ranaditya while retaining her godly supernatural powers. She placed her own double next to her husband every night and flew out herself in the form of a bee [“Bhramara” in sanskrit is “Bee” and Bees are usually associated with Vindhyavasini goddess, possibly due to extensive bee population in forests of Vindhya. On such temple still stands. ]. The same goddess gave her husband the mantra of Hāṭakeśvara, which helped him to descend to the underworld and enjoy himself there for many years—a superhuman achievement which is called pātālasiddhi in many tantric texts.
Here’s it seems Kalhana is using Kathāsaritsāgara as the source which tells many such tales.
Also, builder of the earliest Vaishnavite Shrine in Kashmir. He build two Shiva temples, but due to supernatural powers of his wife, one of the temple becomes a Vishnu temple after the image in the temple miraculously changes.
96. Tarapida (695 -699 A.D.)
98. Kuvalayapida 99. Vajraditya-Bappiyaka 100. Prthivyapida 101. Samgramapida I (736-751 A.D.)
106. Ajitapida (813-850 A.D.)
109. Avanti Varman (855 -883 A.D.)
The story is interesting becuase Minister Sura was a Saiva follower while the King was a follower Vishnu. For his powerful minister’s sake the king went along Saiva path (outwardly), only in his dying moments did he confess to Sura that in his heart he was a follower of Vishnu. During this era, Pañcarātra form of Vaisnavism popular in Kashmir, temples built on its concepts.
In A.D. 732 or 733 King Lalitāditya borrowed from the Bhūteśa Temple ten million dirinaras to finance an expedition to the south. Stein identified the temple at Vangath village, Narnag spring ruins on way to Mount Harmukha.
Kalhana’s chronicle now become all the more closer to verifiable history, easily cross verifiable with other works.
111. Gopalavarman (902 -904 A.D.)
Kalhaṇa sarcastically say’s: ‘Robbers for ministers, a ḍomba for queen and ḍombas for friends: what wonder of the world was there that did not belong to king Cakravarman?’
In an episode King Yaśaskara is served by outcastes who eat what is left by ḍombas and makes a veśyā his first concubine, without knowing that she is also seeing a watchman. Kalhana looks down upon such practices.
“Earlier]Brahmin preceptors did not drink wine while chanting
the Sāmaveda, and ascetics did not take wives, children,
cattle and corn.
Ignorant gurus, who perform ritual worship with fish and
cakes, did not revise philosophical and scriptural
statements in their own writings
Housewives did not figure as deities during the initiation
of gurus, denying their husbands’ virtue and dignity by
the shaking of their heads / bringing their husbands,
virtues and glory to contempt by shaking their heads.]”
The last line probably alludes to the KP ritual that still survives in which post marriage, if there is any Yagnopavit event in the family, new wife sits in her husband’s lap, a mulberry stick is touched ritually to left and right ear of the bride to the chanting of shlokas by the guru. All the other members of the family repeat the same with their wife. The whole ritual is collective and women are very central to these initiation rituals. As we can see, Kalhana did not approve of these practices that saw a change in a woman’s position.
Ironically, what Kalhana laments back then, is now part of culture of Kashmiri Pandits that they remember nostalgically and try to retain. There are some now who even perform Yagnopavit for their daughters.
Son and successor of Parvagupta. Married lame Didda, grand-daughter of Bhimadeva, Shahi ruler of Kabul. Because the queen was the actual ruler, the coins carried her name too, the King was known with moniker, Didda-ksema. In the coins he is prefixed with ‘Di’ which stands for queen. Ksemagupta’s union with Didda brought Kashmir under the rule of the Lohara family which continued to rule Kashmir as well as its original home down to the times of Kalhana and later.
Kalasa attacked his father Ananta who had shifted to Vijayesvara. Ananta commits suicide by sitting on a knife in A.D. 1081 and Suryamati burns herself as Sati. Kalasa consolidated his Kingdom. Assembly of hill chiefs (A.D. 1087-8) when the rulers of eight hill territories around Kashmir from Urasa in the West to Kasthavata in the east assembled at his capital. Conflict between Kalasa and his son Harsa. Harsa imprisoned in 1088 A.D. and Utkarsa, his younger brother recalled from Lohara for paving his way to the throne. Kalasa died at the temple of Martanda.
Kalhana mentions that use of tantric rites for power is now common among Kings and causing all kinds of evil.
134. Harsa (1089-1101 A.D.)
Harsa was well versed in many sciences and a lover of music and arts. Harsa introduced into the country more elaborate fashions of dress and ornaments – perhaps an indication of Muhammadan influence – and made his courtiers imitate his own taste for extravagance in personal attire. Kalhana’s reference to the Dekhan fashions which Harsa copied in his amusements and also in his coinage is curiously corroborated to some extent by gold coins of Harsa, which in their type unmistakably imitate the contemporary coinage of Karnata. Ruthless spoilation of sacred shrines under Harsha for financial considerations. Temple treasures ransacked. Muslim captains employed for the first time under him. Harsa accused of incest. Disastrous expeditions in Rajapuri and Kisanganaga valley. Disastrous floods. Rebellion of Damars under Uccala and Sussala who were brothers and distantly related to Queen Didda. In A.D. 1101 Uccala attacked Kashmir from West and Sussala from the East. Harsa resisted hopelessly and was ultimately murdered. Uccala was the first to occupy Srinagar.
Kalhana’s father Chamnaka [Canpakdvarajah], was a faithful adherent of Harsha. Singer Canpaka [Kanaka] was Chamnaka’s younger brother and probably a Buddhist. A Buddhist shrine/Image at Parihaspora was spared by Harsha at the request of Kanaka.
According to Tāranātha (1575–1634), at this time there were three great Buddhist teachers in Kashmir Sakyamati, Shilabhadra and Yasomitra (who wrote commentary on Yasubandhu’s Abhidarmakosha)
Second Lohara Dynasty
135. Uccala (1101-11 A.D.)
Nalanda destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji, invader belonging to a Turkic tribe long settled in what is now southern Afghanistan. Shakyashri Bhadra of Kashmir, the last abbot of Nalanda flees to Tibet in around 1204. Khilji heads to conquer Tibet, defeated by Assamese and Tibetan forces. Khilji assassinated by fellow tribesman Ali Mardan Khalji who in turn is also killed off by his tribesmen.
In Ilkhanate-ruled Iran, Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318), a Jewish convert to Islam writes Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, a history of the world for Ghazan, mongol Buddhist convert to Islam in 1295 at the hands of Sadr al-din hammuya (1246-1322). Ghazan is at war with his cousin Baidu, and to defeat him seeks help from Nawruz, an emir based out of Khorasan, who puts up the condition of conversion. At the time some nobles already are muslim. For chapter on Kashmir and Buddhism Rashid-al-Din relies as source Kamalashri, a Kashmiri Buddhist Bikshu in Iran. After Iran empire turns to Islam, the Kashmiri Bikshu’s asked to move back to Kashmir if they are not ready to really follow Islam. Nawruz ordered Buddhist and Nestorian Christian temples to be destroyed or converted to mosques. In game of court intrigues, Nawruz loses favor with Ghazan, his children killed and escapes to Herat, in northern Afghanistan where he is eventually executed in 1297.
According to Tarikh-i- Sayid Ali (1569), Kota Rani had a brother named Ravan Raina (son of Ram Chandra! Possible wordplay by writer.). Ravan Raina had a son named Abdal Raina, a convert to Islam. Abdal Raina laid out Rajanakavatika, Garden of Rainas, the area now known as Rainawari.
155. Shah Mir or Sultan Shams-ud-din I (1339-1342 A.D.)
Calendar changed from Laukika. Era begins with Rinchana’s accession and used in State documents. Practice ends with Akbar and Mughals.
156. Sultan Ala-ud-din or Alishah (1342-1354 A.D.)
[Srikant Kaul, critical edition of JRT] Before his death Sikandar installs Mir Khan/Ali Shah, his son by his Muslim queen, Mera, on the throne and not eldest son Firuz, from Hindu queen Sobha]
Near But Kadal in Zadibal, Srinagar, is a 15th century monument known as ‘Madin Sahib’ named after the tomb and mosque of Sayyid Muhammad Madani who came to India with Timur in 1398 and moved to Kashmir during the reign of Sultan Sikandar Butshikan. The monument comprises of a Mosque and a Tomb, with the mosque dating back to around 1444 which first came up during the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, incorporating elements, pillar and base, from an older Hindu monument.
Shahi Khan assassinates Hamsabhatta, brother of Malik Saif-ud-din, at Idgah on the day of Id-ul-Zuha to neutralize the challenge to the throne of Ali Shah. Ali Shah wishes to leave for Mecca, entrusts the throne to Shahi Khan. In Jammu, Ali Shah’s father-in-law advises him to secure the thrown. Ali Shah arrives in Srinagar with forces from Jammu. Shahi Khan leaves the thrown and goes to Sialkot where he seeks help of Khokar tribemen to claim the throne. Khokars defeat forces of Ali Shah and Shahi Khan placed on the throne. Civil war between brothers continues but Jonaraja silent. Ali Shah again arrives with forces from Jammu. Again defeated, this time at Uri. According to Haider Malik, he dies in Prison at Pakhli fort (now part of Hazara), but according to Srivara, Jasrat Khokar killed Ali Shah.
Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani’s disciple and son-in-law Isaq-i Khuttalani declares his student Sayyid Muhammad-i Nurbakshi to be the Mahdi and begins a rebellion. It is put down by Timurid Shahrukh who has Khuttalani executed in 1423 (1413-25). Muhammad-i-Nurbaksh (d.1446) gives up the Mahdi claim proclaimed by his master and is pardoned. He becomes the leader of Hamadani-Kubrawi line of Sufis which comes to have great influence in Islamic era Kashmir.
Marries the two Jammu princesses. Manik Dev, the ruler of Jammu is maternal uncle to his eldest son Adham Khan.
Tilakacharya, last Buddhist minister during Zaina time. Helped in revival of non-muslims in Kashmir along with Shriya Bhatta.
Internal fights for the throne. Adham Khan a challenger for Haji Khan. However, Adham Khan dies in Jammu fighting the Turks. His son Fateh Shah born in Jammu on Shivratri night, raised by his mother’s family. Rise of Purna the Barbar, a favourite of the King. Liberal policies continue. But, Hindus who attacked Shah Hamadan shrine have their arms and legs cut and thrown in Jhelum to drown.
[Satoshi Ogura] The battles for secession between the royals last for about 50 years and ends with death of Muhammad Shah. Nurbakshia (at the time Shia order) missionary Mir Sams al-din Araqi (d. 1526) arrives in Shahmir Court in 1493 as embassy of Sultan Husayn Mirza (1469-1506). More Hindu temples and practices destroyed by him. Anti-Nurbakshia movement starts among Sunnis majority Kashmir nobles. From end of 15th century to the first half of 16th century, there are 3 layers of antagonism: Muhammand Shah and Fateh Shah, between Sayyids and local chiefs, and between Nurbakshiya and the anti-Nurbakshia faction. Real power with Margays, Chaks and Rainas.
Son of Muhammad Shah
Reconquered Skardu, Gilgit, Kistawar, Pakhli and Mougli which had fallen off from the kingdom. Humayun dies in 1556 and Akbar succeeds to the throne. Tan Sen in Akbar’s counrt. Francis Bacon born in 1561 A.D.
Akbar sends personal emissaries to Kashmir led by Mirza Muhammad Muqim. Shakespeare born in 1564. Church of England founded. Jahangir born in 1569.
Strikes coin in the name of Akbar thus accepting his suzerainty. Terrible famine in 1576 which lasted for 3 years. Ramayana of Tulsidas completed in 1572 A.D. Thomas Stevens in India in 1579.
Chaks extern Hamza Makhdoom to Sialkot. His disciple Baba Daud Khaki and followers goto Multan, while Shaikh Yakub Sarfi and other chiefs go to Akbar’s court and ask him to put an end to Chak rule. In 1585, Akbar’s half-sibling and arch enemy Mirza Muhammad Hakim dies in Kabul. Akbar sees opportunity for expanding his empire to North of Hindustan. Yusuf Shah concludes a treaty with Mughal army in 1586.
Akbar invades Kashmir and takes possession of the kingdom . Yusuf Shah taken to Bihar contrary to the promise given to him (worked for Mughals, died in 1592). Guru Arjun Dev compiles the Adi Granth in 1591. Din-liahi proclaimed in 1582.
Later Kashmiri writers tell us it is during this time Habba Khatoon wrote her love songs. None of the contemporary accounts of History at the time mention Habba Khatoon. She is first written about after 200 years. Kashmiri Language starts taking a familiar shape.
Syed Mubarak Khan (1580 A.D. -(six months and two days))
Lohar Shah (1580-1581 A.D. )
Yusuf Shah (1581-1585 A.D.)
Yakub Shah (1585- 1586 A.D.)
Hamza Makhdoom’s final will partly in Sharda script.
178. Akbar (1586-1605 A.D.)
First visit of Akbar to Kashmir in 1589 – Faizi accompanies him and composes the Qasida on Kashmir – also Urfi Shirazi. Second visit of the Emperor in 1592 accompanied by Nizam-ud-Din, the author of Tabaqat-i-Akbari. Shaikh Yaqubsarfi dies in 1594. In the same year Akbar asks ‘Abdul Qadir Badayuni’ to rewrite Bahr-ul-Asmar (Sea of Stories) of Mulla Ahmad’s [Mullā Shāh Muḥammad Shāhābādī] translation of the Rajatarangini. Famine in Kashmir in 1596. Third visit of Akbar in 1597. Defeat of Spanish Armada in 1588. Char Minar built in Hyderabad in 1591. Death of Montaigne the French essayist in 1592. East India Company formed in 1600. Shakespeare’s Hamlet composed in 1602. Tobacco introduced into Mogul Empire in 1604.
Wall round Hari Parbat built ostensibly as a relief measure for famine of 1597-98. Foundation of Nagar-Nagar Fort laid on the Hari Parbat. Inscription on the wall mentions “begar” not used for construction.
Jesuits visit Kashmir. First westerners in Kashmir.
Mirza Kasim Khan (1586-1587 A.D.)
Syed Yusuf Khan (1587-1590 A.D.)
Mohamad Qulich (Kilbeh) Khan (1590-1601 A.D.) Removed from office after complaint by Hindus. According to Pandit Suka’s Rajatarangini, the fort city came up at the time as till them Mughal soldiers were living in civilian areas and casuing much trouble. The walled city was a solution. In charge of the creation of wall was a man named Kamal Kant. Kant, were later going to convert and rise in power with vast Jagirs.
Visits Kashmir eight times. Kistawar conquered in 1620 (even though in local lore people of region remember Akbar with respect). Plague in Kashmir. Gunpowder plot in 1605 to frighten James I. Death of Mazhari, the poet, in Srinagar. Milton born in 1608. British factory established at Surat in 1613 by permission of Jajangir. Birth of Mulla Mushin Fari in 1615. Cervantes writes his Don Quixote in the same year. Bacon’s Novum Organum in 1620. Death of Tulsidas in 1624. Sivaji born in 1627.
Intihab-i-Tarikh-i-Kasmir, a concise Persian translation of Rajatarangini ordered by Jahangir, written anonymously, alluded by Bernier that goes on to be source of Haider Malik Cadura Tarikh-i-Kashmir. Haider Malik was instumental in killing of Sher Afghan, the first husband of Nurjahan.
In 1618, Muḥammad Ḥusayn does translation of the Rajatarangini in Persian.
Syed Muhammad Mahdi (?anonymous ) writes Baharistan-i-Shahi (History of Kashmir from earlier times to 1614 A.D. the year it was completed). Haider Malik Cadura writes Tarikh-i-Kashmir (written in 1617-20 or 1620-21). Sahib Kaul writes Krishna-Avatara and Janma-Carita.
Kashmir gets Pathar Masjid, Shalimar Garden, Acchabal Garden and Verinag Arcade. Serais in Jammu and restoration of Jama Masjid.
Governors:
Nawab Kulbeh Khan (1606-09 A.D.)
Hasham Khan (1609-1612 A.D.)
Safdar Khan (1612-1615 A.D.)
Ahmad Begh Khan (1615-1618 A.D.) [Tyrant]
Dilawar Khan (1618-1620 A.D.)
Iradat Khan (1620-1622 A.D.) //Chaks finally finished off in Kashmir under his rule. Abdal the chief of Baltistan, a Nurbakshi, providing support to Habib Khan Chak and Ahamad Khan Chak was the trigger.
Itikhad Khan (1622-1633 A.D.)
Revives the “begaar” methods of Shihab-ud-din era (1354-1373 A.D.) Villagers are dragged to collect saffron.
Kashmir becomes Mughal garden.
Kashmir gets Nishat Bagh, laid out by Asafkhan, Prime Minister and father-in-law of Shah Jehan. Chasma Shahi. Bagh-i-Glahi laid out near Bacchapor just a mile up Nasim. Akhun Mulla Shah’s mosque near Hari Parbat under the supervision of Dara Shukuh. Completion of Verinag Arcade. Bridge over Jhelum at Bijibehara built under the supervision of Dara. He also lays a garden at Bijibehara and the observatory at Pari Mahal.
Mulla Tahir Ghani, one of the greatest persian poets of Kashmir is born in 1630 A.D. Building of Taj Mahal begun in 1631. Philosopher Spinoza born in 1632. Building of Red Fort begun in 1638 A.D. The English occupy Hughli in 1640 A.D. Newton born in 1642 A.D. Dara Shukuh writes Risalah-i-Haqq-numa in 1646 A.D. while in Kashmir. English factory at Hughli founded. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur in 1656.
Mulla Muhsin Fani writes Dabastani Mazahib (a very important work on comparative religions). Rupa Bhawani offers philosophical musings.
Sahib Kaul (1642-1667) writes Devinamavilasa and many other works, briefly reviving the strota devotional tradition of Kashmir.
Rajanaka Ratnakantha (1658/1677) scholar copyist among other things, copies a bitch bark version of Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. His copy having complete 8 canto later becomes one of the primary source for Stein’s translation of the work. Now in Bodleian archives.
Zaffar Khan (1642-1646 A.D.) Abolishes taxes on saffron, wood and poll-tax on sheep and boatmen.
Tarbait Khan (1646-1648 A.D.)
Hassan begh Khan (1648-1650 A.D.)
Ali Mardan Khan 1650-1657 A.D.) fantastical tales told about him (philosopher’s stone/snake woman/Shiva/ etc.) Builds serais on Pir Panjal route and the road from Kashmir to Rajouri. A religious fanatic named Khwaja Mam sets fire to pandit Mahadev’s house and killed many pandits.
Lashkar Khan (1657-1659 A.D.)
It was during Shah Jahan that the practice of marriage between Hindus and Muslims was restricted. Earlier, the upper clas (Rajputs?) of Hindus and Muslims continued their practice of marriage based on clan rules. So a Hindu could take a Muslim wife and a Muslim could take a Hindu wife. A Hindu woman married to a muslim was buried post death while a Muslim girl married to a Hindu was burnt after death. Shah Jahan decreed it to be un-islamic. He ordered that Hindus who had married Muslims woman, either renounce their faith or leave their Muslims wives. What followed: Zamidar Jagu accepted Islam and became Raja Daulatmand. [M.R. Qanugo, Journal of Indian History, 1929]
Fire-Famine-Earthquake and floods in Kashmir. The ancestors of Muhammad Iqbal, Saprus, embrace Islam. Royal Society of England founded in 1660. Dara Shukuh executed the same year. Acquisition of Bombay by the English from Portugal in 1662 as dowry. French East India Co., established in 1644. Aurangzeb’s first visit to Kashmir in 1665. Bernier accompanies him. Ghani dies in 1668. Mulla Muhsin dies in 1671. Guru Gobind Singh born in 1676. Revolution in England in 1688. Voltaire born in 1694. Guru Gobind Singh founds the Khalsa in 1695. Khwaja Nur-ud-Din Ishbari brought the sacred hairs of the Prophet from Bijapur which led to the construction of shrine at Hazrat Bal.
Ghani wrote Dewan-i-Ghani and Ratnakhantha wrote Kusumanjali-Tika.
In 1666, first Kashmiri trader colony in Lhasa, Tibet. A ruler of Tiber, mentioned in Persian chronicles as Daldal Namjal converts to Islam, mints coins in the name of Aurangzeb. When Black Qalmaqs invade Tibet, Daldal asks emperor for help. Emperor sends Imperial force from Kabul under Fidai Khan (son of Kashmir governor Ibrahim Khan).
George Foster visits Kashmir in 1783 and mentions that the emperor extracts a hefty revenue of 3 and a half lakh from Kashmir, while the governor was extracting 20 lakh.
Governors:
Itimad Khan (1659-1622 A.D.)
Ibrahim Khan (1622-1633 A.D.)
Islam Khan (1663-1664 A.D.) Islamabad named after him.
Saif Khan (1644-67 A.D.) Introduced new ways for taxing. Started actual measurement of lands for taxes.
Mubariz Khan (1667-68 A.D.)
Saif Khan (1668-71 A.D.) in second term went about promoting agriculture and building new towns.
Iftikhar Khan (1671-75 A.D.) Tyrant.
“sar-i-khud dadam magar sir-i-khuda na dadam.”
Quam-ud-din (1675-78 A.D.)
Kashmir experiences earthquakes in 1669 and 81. Major fires in Srinagar in 1672 and 78. Flood in 1682. Famine in 1688.
Narayan Kaul writes Muntakhaba-ul-Tawarikh.
1720 sees rioting and mini-rebellion in Kashmir over Jazia tax and other restrictions on Hindus and Shias. Mughal court right from the time of Farrukh Siyar keeps applying the tax and then removing it, both acts under pressure from different quarters. In 1719 during the time of Muhammad Shah, Jazia is abolished. Mughal court is not as powerful as it was and has seen one emperor after another in quick succession. In Kashmir, a Sunni Jagirdar named Mahbub Khan (also known as Abdun Nabi Kashmiri/Mullah Abdun Nabi Muhtavi Khan) sees an opportunity to seize power of Kashmir. Mahbub Khan was appointed chief theologian of Kashmir by Emperor Bahadur Shah. He makes Jazia his rallying cry and seizes power from Mughal Deputy Subedar Mir Ahmed Khan and using support of masses and Kazis/clerics decrees that non-Muslims should not ride horses, should not put turbans, coats, armors, should not go to parks and gardens for excursions, and should not bath on certain days. Mughal officials in Kashmir refuse to comply as Emperor Muhammad Shah has already abolished Jazia and offered Zimmi status to non-Muslims. In response Abdun Nabi Kashmiri and his men start harassing and violating Hindu life and property. Mughal representatives are helpless as their troops are defeated by Abdun Nabi Kashmiri’s men but then Shias get involved in the affair as Abdun Nabi’s violence is against all those he considers non-Muslims. In the end, Abdun Nabi Kashmiri dies at the hand of Shias who managed to corner and kill him along with his two sons through deception on 12 September, 1720. This leads to Shia-Sunni riots as Zadibal is burnt down by third son of Abdun Nabi, Mulla Sharaf-ud-din and general Sunni masses. The riots end with Delhi sending fresh reinforcement in 1721 under Abdus Samad Khan. Delhi must have been worried to have sent the man who captured Khalsa rebel warrior Banda Singh Bahadur in Punjab in 1715. To put end to rioting Mughal forces kill Sharaf-ud-din and publicly hang 50 ringleaders of the rioting gangs.
[R.K Parimu, citing Khafi Khan’s Muntakhab -ul-Lubab (1874) and Khwaja Muhammad A’zam Mustaghni Kaul Didamari’s Waquiat-i-Kashmir. Another source: “The History of India, as told by its own historians (1867-77)” by Elliot and Dowson]
Governors under Shah Alam (1707-12)
Jaffar Khan (1708-09)
Ibrahim Khan (1709-09)
Nawazish Khan (1709-11)
Inayat-ullah Khan (1711-12)
Governors under Farrukh Siyar (1713-19 A.D)
Ali Mohamed Khan (1712-14)
Aziz Khan (1714-15)
Ali Mohamed Khan (1715-16)
Ahtram Khan (1716-16)
Inayat Ullah Khan (1716-20)
Abdul Samad Khan (1720-23)
Azim Khan Bahadur (1723-24)
Saadat Khan Bahadur (1712-16)
Governor under Mohamed Shah (1719-48)
Inayat Ullah Khan (1724-25)
Akidat Khan (1725-27)
Aghar Khan (1727-28)
Amir Khan (1728-35)
Dil Diler Khan (1735-38)
Fakhur-ul-Dwala (1738-39)
Ataya Ullah Khan (1739-41)
Asad Baz Khan (1741-45)
Abu-ul-Mansoor Khan (1745-48)
Governor under Ahmed Shah (1748-54)
Abdul Mansoor Khan (1748-53)
Ali Kuli Khan (1753-1753)
Mukkalal Muhammad Taufiq writes Shah-nama-i-Kashmir. Abdul Wahhab Shaiq writes versified history of Kashmir. Mirza Muhatshani Khan Fida writes poetic verses.
Kashmir gets Shergarhi palace.
Jawan Sher (1770-72)
184. Timur Shah (1772-1793 A.D.)
Haji Karimdad Khan, Azad Khan and Mir Dad Khan as Governors. Warren Hastings becomes Governor General of India in 1774. Birth of Ram Mohan Roy in the same year. American Revolutionary War and Declaration of Independence by the United States in 1776. Birth of Ranjit Singh in 1780. Sir William Jones draws the attention of Orientalists to Mulla Muhsin Fani’s Dabastan-i-Mazahibin in 1789. 1789 French Revolution commences. Uranium discovered in the same year but not isolated till 1840. Parmanand, Kashmiri pot born at Matan in 1791. Birth of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1792.
Mir Sadullah Shahabadi writes Bagh-i-Sulaiman. Mullah Hidayatullah Mattu writes Takmila-i-Tarikh-A’zami. Mufti Mohammed Sudrud Din Wafac writes a Masnavi and Tuhfat-ul-usshuq. Mir Abdulla Baihaqi writes poetic verses.
Kashmir gets Amira Kadal Bridge.
Haji Karimdad Khan (1776-83)
Dagshawl institution for taxation of Shawl industry was first introduced by Pathan Governor Karim Dad Khan. Soon after Shawl workers started migrating to Punjab in around 1810.
Azad Khan [1782-85] invades Poonch. Breaks allegiance with Taimur Shah. Declares Sultan of Turkey as his sovereign. Declares himself “Second Nadir Shah”. At first wins against forces of Taimur Shah. But eventually flees to Poonch and commits suicide. People forced into labor for his whimsical projects like converting Maisuma into a lake by constructing a weir at Athwajan.
Juma Khan Alakzai (1988)
Abdullah Khan Akozai as Governor of Kashmir. Shias and Sunnis riot. Mirza Ghalib born at Agra in 1796. Kashmiri shawls become popular in France in 1798. Ranjit Singh becomes master of Lahore by receiving the title of Raja from Zaman Shah.
Arnimal (Mrs. Bhawani Das Kachru) sings.
In 1812, Shah Shuja is captured by Jahandar Khan, the Governor of Attack and handed over to his brother Atta Muhammad, Governor of Kashmir. Wafa Begum, senior wife of Shah Shuja takes shelter with Maharaja Ranjit Singh at Lahore. Maharaja promises safe return of Shah Shuja in exchange for Koh-i-Noor diamond.
Ranjit Singh forges alliance of common interest with Kabul Wazir Fateh Khan who wanted to oust Ata Mohammad Khan, the Afghan self-declared ruler of Kashmir [ Ata Mohammad, Mir Izzatullah claims stuck coins in name of Reshi Saint Noorudin after cutting ties with Kabul ]. Fateh Khan promises him 8 lakh payable from the revenue of Kashmir annually. Ranjit Singh attempts to get Kashmir first in 1812 (then again in 1814 and finally in 1819) but fails as Fateh Khan did not keep his end of the bargain. The campaign cost Ranjit Singh Rs. 6,70,000 and many lives. But, he succeeds in releasing Shah Shuja and obtains the Kuh-i-Nur diamond in 1813. Sikh forces get better acquainted with the terrain and climate of Kashmir.
Stephenson’s Locomotive in the same year. Cylon becomes a dependency of British Crown in 1815. First Cotton Mills in India in 1818. Karl Marx, the father of communism born in 1817. Ranjit Singh attacks Kashmir in 1819 (with valuable help coming from Agar Khan, Raja of Rajauri). Muslim rule in the valley established in 1339 A.D. comes to an end in 1819.
Ata Muhammad Khan builds bridge at Baramulla.
Atta Muhammad Khan
Wazir Shah Muhammad (1806-13)
Wazir Fateh Muhammad (1813)
Sardar Muhammad Azim (1813-1819)
Jabbar Khan (1819)
Diwan Moti Ram, first Sikh Governor of Kashmir. Ruskin born in 1819. A British man accidentally discovers Ajanta caves. G.T. Vigne (1935), Moorcraft and Hugel visit Kashmir. Around 1812, on order of Moorcraft one Meer Izzut-Oollah made a journey to central Asia passing though Kashmir, and describing it in persian.
A small fort built at Uri. Fort of Nalouchi at Muzzafarabad, Gurudwara at Mattan. Kathi Darwaza. All built under supervision of Hari Singh Nalwa.
Birbal Kachru writes Mukhtasar-ul-Tawarikh. Parmananda writes Sudama Carita, Rasha Svayamvar and Siva-Lagna.
“All the people I send into Kashmir turn out haramzada; there is too much pleasure and enjoyment in that country” ~ Maharaja Ranjit Singh to Sir Alexander Burnes of the East India Company.
1830 Zadibal riots between Shia-Sunni, about 200-300 Persian traders leave Kashmir for Iran.
Lord Hardinge has decided to cut Sikh empire. Under the Treaty of Amritsar, Kashmir passed on to Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1846 A.D.
Lord Hardinge visits the valley in 1844. Punch, Ramnagar, Bhadrawah, Kishtawar, Bhimbar, Rajowri, Skardu added to the dominion of Jammu & Kashmir by Gulab Singh. Baltistan subdued. The Trigonometrical Survey and first map of Kashmir during 1855-63.
Mirza Saif-ud-din Beg wrote Khulasat-ul-Tawarikh. Mulla Muhammad Khalil Mirjanpuri wrote Tarikh-i-Kashmir. Mir Azizullah Qalandhar wrote Tarikh-i-Kashmir. Muhamud Gami wrote Yusuf Zulaikha, Laila-wa-Majnu, Shrin-o-Khusrav and Harun-ur-Rashid.
Raghunatha and Shiv temples at Jammu.
Collection of manuscripts (Georg Bühler ) and their translations.
In 1890, Germany chose to support Austria against Russia over competing influence in the Balkans, setting stage for World War 1.
Powers of the Maharaja withdrawn by British in 1889. Severe Cholera in 1888, 1892, 1900-02, 1906-07 and 1910. Appointment of Lawrence for land settlement of the valley in 1887. Persian as court language replaced by Urdu. First college opened in 1905. Prince of Wales College, Jammu, opened in 1907. railway extended to the state. Power house set up in 1907-08. Conquest of Hunza Nagar and Chitral.
Kashmiri poetry of Krishna Das, Maqbool Shah Kralawari, Abdul Ahad Nazim and Rasul Mir Shabadi.
Muslim revolt comes into forefront in 1931. In 1932, Muslim conference is born. National Conference comes out of Muslim Conference in 1939 with Congress support from mainland. Pandit like Jia Lal Kilam, Kashyap Bandhu and Prem Nath Bazaz join. Major communist/socialist influence in the movement. Subsequently ‘Quit Kashmir’ modeled on ‘Quit India’ in 1946. Kashmir accedes to the dominion of India in 1947. Tribal invasion takes place in the October of 1947. Popular rule established. Hereditary rulership abolished as a result of the convening of the Constituent Assembly in 1951. Yuvraj Karan Singh, son of Hari Singh elected first head of the state under the new Constitution of Kashmir.
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Cannons were first imported in Kashmir in A.D. 1464 on the order of Budshah Zain-ul-Abidin using Turkish knowhow. Srivara, the court poet of Budshah called it ‘Top’. A year later the cannons were getting manufactured in Kashmir. The man credited for doing this was a Turkish pyrotechnician named Habib.
Image: “Guards at old fort in Srinagar demonstrate how ancient cannon was loaded to be fired. Srinagar, Kashmir, 1945.” [2010 post on 1945]
Source: Medieval Kashmir and the science of history (2004) by Walter Slaje.
A photograph of old Banihal pass (at 9,200 feet) by A. Hodgson for National Geographic magazine 1921.
‘A guide for visitors to Kashmir’ (1898) by W. Newman mentions Banihal route to Kashmir but adds that it was meant only for the royal family. In addition, Walter Rooper Lawrence, the Land settlement officer in Kashmir from 1889 to 1895 in his book ‘Valley of Kashmir’ (1895) regrets that valley in not connect to plains via Banihal pass which was something achievable and desirable. The route linking Srinagar to Rawalpindi railhead, Jehlum Valley Cart road was already operational by 1890 using help of Spedding & Co, a private army of civil engineers maintained by Charles Spedding. The modern route via Banihal must have first come up in between those years. The road called ‘new’ Banihal route [BC Road, Banihal Cart Road] was finally completed in 1915 at a cost of about 40 lakh and opened to public in around 1922. The main Kashmiri engineer for the Banihal project was Pt. Laxman Joo Tickoo. With the opening of the motor-able all weather road, the dreaded ‘Begar’ system, in which people would be forceful made to act like coolies for people crossing the treacherous passes, died
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| Jawahar Tunnel, the present route 2008 |
The famous Polo Ground in Leh was commissioned in 1885 by Wazir Pandit Radha Krishna Kaul.
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| I travelled to walk on it no trace of his name Leh Polo Ground, September 2015 |
The state emblem of Jammu and Kashmir designed by artist Mohan Raina (1928-1983 ) in 1952.
The colonnade of Buniyar Temple, situated along the Baramula-Uri road on way to Mohra, housed something that caught my eye: ancient sculptured stone slabs. In traditional Kashmiri architecture for temples suggests that colonnades surrounding a temple housed images of deities. Now, these empty colonnades at Buniyar house these stone slabs.
I need to find out what they are. These stone slabs are found all over Kashmir. A lot of them now placed in temples and worshipped. As usual, Kashmiris haven’t documented much, the stones are simply called ‘memorial stones’, I know a discovery awaits.
Rai Sahib Daya Ram during his survey of monuments of Kashmir in around 1915 wrote:
In a paper on tombs at Hinidan in the Las Bela, on right bank of Hab river, about 73 miles from Karachi. The tombs were interesting because they belong to an era when Islam was new to the region and the rituals for the dead were a mix of native belief and Islamic rules. On some of the tombs, there were human figures drawn. Jean Philippe Vogel in Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report 1902-1903 writes:
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| Sati Stone |
Some memorial slabs kept at SPS Museum, Srinagar
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| Hero Stone |
These stones are essentially dead men and their dead wives, tales of war and bloodshed, reminders of gruesome ancient customs and traditions. These are episodes from Rajatarangini, our past.
“During the administration of Dewan Kirpa Ram [(1826-1830)] Kashmiri Pandits resumed the ancient practice of Sati in all likelihood persuaded by the Sikhs and the Punjabi Hindus.” [A History of Sikh Rule in Kashmir, 1819-1846, R. K. Parmu]
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| At Verinag. |
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Chaytmo chini pyalen chai hato
A woman offers tea to his lover in a bone china cup, a replacement for her body, for her body is withering and her heart, it aches.
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As a child, the cup would often slip from my hand and tea would spill on a kaleen. The tea would sink into the thick dark fabric, tea would just vanish, all that would remain – a trail of stream, on the cloth and in the cup, some green leaves, some cinnamon, some cardamom and some crushed pieces of almonds. I would pick the pieces and eat. I was in love with Kehwa.
The Arabic word ‘Kahwa’ means ‘exiting the spirit’, in Turkish it becomes ‘kahveh’, from which we get the English word ‘Coffee’. In Pandit households, Kehwa was known as Moghul chai, probably in honor of the Mughals who introduced it to Kashmir. In Kashmir, besides the normal Dalcheen Kehwa (cinnamon Kehwa), there is Zaffran Kehwa, the saffron one usually served to tourists, then there is Damm Tueth Kehwa, one with a pinch of lemon, it would be served if one is not feeling too well, somedays milk would be added to it and it would become Dod Chai, somedays Sattu (ground toasted pulses and cereals) would added to get a heavy breakfast of Kahwa, and for sour throats: a pinch of black pepper would be added.
There was always something regal about it, right from its rich ingredients and to the way it was served. At weddings, pipping hot Kehwa was served in copper Samavars, the import from Russian ‘Samovar’, which means ‘self-cook’- the tea would go bagg bagg on its own. In old days, the tea cups in Hindu households would be of bronze alloy and called ‘Khos‘, while among Muslims, bone china cups were the norm and called ‘Chinipyala‘. When I was young, our house still had a few as the old ladies preferred the old brass ones. Last year, in Jammu, I had a tough time finding a Khos. It seems Khos in no longer manufactured by traditional metalworkers.
In Kashmir, bone china is still popular. In Muslim households, a reddish salty concoction known as ‘Noon Chai’ (Salt tea) was always more popular. The peculiar color coming from baking soda, in Kashmiri called ‘Phul‘. This tea is somewhat similar to the ‘Gur-Gur’ chai of Ladakh, only in Ladakh they add butter. In old days, the soda ‘Phul‘ came from Nubra valley and the salt from Punjab salt mines (once a monopoly of Gulab Singh, and now in Pakistan). In Kashmiri Pandit households, ‘Noon Chai’ was known as ‘Sheer Chai’, ‘Sheer’ being the Persian for ‘Milk’. It was particularly popular among old Pandit ladies as a post-lunch drink. The nommer for someone addicted to all these teas was Chai Shoda.
Charles von Hügel on visiting Kashmir in around 1835 noticed the peculiar drink and Kashmir and the elaborate way in which Sheer/Noon chai was authentically made:
One begins this process by keeping an iron kettle over the fire and pour 5 cups of water in it. Then one cup full of tea leaf is added to the pit and in addition one table spoon full of backing soda is also added to the pot and then the mixture is thoroughly shaken by stirring. The entire thing is thrown into the water when it comes to simmer. One allows the mixture to brew for about 10 minutes. Then one pours two cups of cold water into the pot and allows the mixture to brew for another 10 minutes at a lower temperature and once again 5 cups of cold water is added to the kettle. Then the brew is made to draw the decoction for another half an hour of boiling, it is filtered though a cloth piece into a large kettle and a small bit of rock salt is added. The whole mass is then bubbled for a while, like one does the chocolet. A teaspoon full of water is added to the mixture. It is then that the actual cocktail of tea is ready for preparation. Now the iron kettle mentioned previously is taken and 4-5 cups of boiling milk is added to the vessel and the brew prepared already is added to the kettle and stirred well at last it is poured out into the drinking cups. It looks completely like chacolet.
Hügel arrived in Kashmir when Chai mania was probably at peak in Kashmir. It around this time
Persian poet of Shahabad in Kashmir, Mulla Hamidullah ‘Hamid’ (d.1848), came up with Chanama (“A Tea Poem”):
Give me tea, O Saqi, and let there be no delay;
let me have it bitter, if milk and sugar are not at hand.
Had Jamshid taken a draught from this pot,
his slow-beating pulse would have run like deer.
Have you heard the boiling kettle of tea cry bagg bagg?
Verily you would say it was Mansur shouting ana al-haqq.
There is a reference in the Book of God
Bread to eat and tea to drink
However, tea was not a new import to Kashmir. The discoverers of tea were our neighbours. The word ‘te‘ and ‘Cha‘ come from China, and from them comes the Persian ‘Chai‘ and English ‘Tea‘. The tradition of tea in all probability came to Kashmir from Chinese Turkestan. So, Kashmiri are probably one of the earliest lover of tea. It was because of this love that most Kashmiris, unknowingly, or knowingly, irrespective of religion, were tasting Ox blood.
Hügel mentions that Tea used to reach Kashmir from Ladakh. And in Ladakh it used to arrive either from Lasa (Tibet) or from Yarkand. It must be mentioned here that one of the outcome of Battle of Basgo, and the subsequent treaty of 1684 between Ladakh and Tibet was regulation of tea trade: Dalai Lama had a monopoly over the brick tea trade with Ladakh. By the time Sikhs and Dogras arrived in the region, monopoly was lost. Hügel mentions the best tea (at least 30 different varieties) used to arrive in Kashmir from across Chinese borders via Yarkand. The variety of Black tea from Lasa was trading at Rs. 6 a pound and tea was generally a luxury, something that would make a great gift. Despite the popularity of tea in Kashmir, Hügel pegged its import at mere 500 pounds.
Baden Henry Baden-Powel in his ‘Hand-book of the Economic Products of the Punjab’ (1868) gives more details about this tea trade. He was surveying Punjab where he noticed luxury of tea was known only to Kashmiris: the shawl-weavers/traders and Pandit Munshis/ writers. It arrived in Punjab from Calcutta. In 1852, 25,000 maunds of tea came to Amritsar of which 2000 passed to Kashmir. It was the secondary route for tea in Kashmir. Primarily, tea from China in form of cakes would arrive in Kashmir from across Changthan pass via Leh. Black and green tea in cakes, called “dhamun” was imported to Leh, and valued around Rs. 30,000. The name of the China Green teas were “karakokla“, “khushbo” [scented] and “salad” [sabaz, Green]. The China black brick tea was know as “takhta siya“.
Over the next few decades, the tea trade from land started decreasing and tea started arriving primarily from sea as British started monopolizing the trade routes.
The Mughal chai mentioned here reads more like Dod Chai or Kashmiri Milk tea. It is important to note that Surat was one of the first major trade port for East India Company beginning 17th century. Surati Chai was the tea that reached Kashmir via Surat. Interestingly, in contrast, at later time, Kahwa tea leaves were known as Bombay Chai because its leaves came from Bombay port. With addition of milk it was known as Dabal Chai (Double Tea). [Later in the world of packaged it became, Liptan Chai (Lipton tea).]
If all this time, for all these centuries, the tea was coming from China in form of bricks, it is then true that Kashmiris, like most tea drinkers of the time, were probably tasting Ox blood. What most people don’t remember now is that the traditional Chinese method for making tea into bricks involved using flour, dung and ox blood as binding agent.
